فصلنامه تاریخ روابط خارجی
پیاپی 91 (تابستان 1401)

Reports point out that during diplomatic contacts and trade ties between Iranand the West during the Safavid era, cultural and artistic exchanges have alsooccurred, whose scope though was not vast. These travels and the traveloguereports resulting thereof, have reflected the various dimensions of the Iraniancivilizational aspects and introduced them to the Europeans; as they have alsorevealed some of the civilizational aspects of Europe to Iran for comparision andadaptation sake. The goal of this paper is looking into the manifestations andforms of cultural and artistic interactions between Iran and Europe during theSafavid era, using the descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the researchindicate that the expansion of Iran/Europe ties in this period, also trigerred somesorts of cultural and artistic interaction, leading to Iranians getting familiar withsome of the Europeans cultural and artistic aspects in painting, music, and otherspheres and this made some developments in the Iranian culture and art. TheEuropeans, have also been active in these spheres and in scientific dialogues,translation of some literary works to the European languages, transfering of theIranian artistic works and reflection of the Iranian lifestyle and civilization to theEuropeans.

The Iran/France ties expanded in various political, cultural, military and economic areas during the presidency of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. Based on the Giscard d'Estaing,s  policy, in order to counter the economic challenges following the Arab-Israel war and the negative oil crisis consequences thereof, the French industries sought a bigger share of the vast Iranian market. The close ties in the Iranian fledgling nuclear industry covered a major portion of these interactions and the delivery of the nuclear powerplants with 5000 megawatt capacity was also a part of the cooperations. The value of some of these facilities, including the Darkhoveyn nuclear power plant, was estimated over $ 1.2 billion worth. Tens of French companies carried out activities in the specialties related to nuclear power plants and the training of the human resources needed for the Iranian nuclear power plants was conducted in France. Also, the Iranian government participated in uranium processing plans of France through paying heavy credits. Iranian efforts to guarantee to receive its nuclear power plants fuel, led to purchasing some of the shares of the fuel providing companies of Corodif and Eurodif of France. The aim of this paper is to explore the French government’s role during the Giscard d'Estaing office in the Iranian atomic program over the 1970s. The question here is how had been the Iran/France nuclear relations during the Giscard d'Estaing’s presidency? In the end, the author concludes that the Giscard d'Estaing presidency’s period was a turning point in the expansion of the two countries’ full scale relations, especially in the field of peaceful nuclear cooperation.The Iran/France ties expanded in various political, cultural, military and economic areas during the presidency of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. Based on the Giscard d'Estaing,s  policy, in order to counter the economic challenges following the Arab-Israel war and the negative oil crisis consequences thereof, the French industries sought a bigger share of the vast Iranian market. The close ties in the Iranian fledgling nuclear industry covered a major portion of these interactions and the delivery of the nuclear powerplants with 5000 megawatt capacity was also a part of the cooperations. The value of some of these facilities, including the Darkhoveyn nuclear power plant, was estimated over $ 1.2 billion worth. Tens of French companies carried out activities in the specialties related to nuclear power plants and the training of the human resources needed for the Iranian nuclear power plants was conducted in France. Also, the Iranian government participated in uranium processing plans of France through paying heavy credits. Iranian efforts to guarantee to receive its nuclear power plants fuel, led to purchasing some of the shares of the fuel providing companies of Corodif and Eurodif of France. The aim of this paper is to explore the French government’s role during the Giscard d'Estaing office in the Iranian atomic program over the 1970s. The question here is how had been the Iran/France nuclear relations during the Giscard d'Estaing’s presidency? In the end, the author concludes that the Giscard d'Estaing presidency’s period was a turning point in the expansion of the two countries’ full scale relations, especially in the field of peaceful nuclear cooperation.

Foreign relations, at all levels, whether formal, state or personal relations, require familiarity with foreign languages. With the increase in need for establishing foreign relations at all levels in the contemporary Iranian history, the issue of educating and learning foreign languages got new aspects. In the early 19th century, the Iranian defeats in two wars against Russia made them aware of their lag behind the new science and technology train, and the Iranians decided to learn the new sciences. And in this regard, familiarity with foreign languages was of paramount importance. Various factors led to the French language becoming the primary among the foreign languages in the 1st period of this movement (from the 19th centrury to the 2nd world war), and during the next period (until the end of the 2nd Pahlavi reign), English became the first foreign language. In this paper, this issue is probed first from the historical aspect, and the historical evidence and clues relating to the change and development  of foreign languages in Iran is looked into. Then, using the "Linguistic Imperialism" theory by Robert Phillipson, it is examined how this change, while being influenced by domestic conditions and policy making of the Iranian governments, has been influenced by a global trend and the English language emerging as an international language. In other words, Iranian situation has not been contrary to the international trend, and the emerging of the English language in Iran as the first foreign language, must be seen as influenced by the globalization policies.

In the 2nd half of the 19th centrury, the cotton production decreased as a result of the US civil war, and this issue prompted some of the governments, especially Russia, to enter Iran to compensate for their cotton deficit. Since Russia had imposed and implemented the contents of two treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay and dominated the Iranian market, it took steps to purchase and procure cotton from Iran. Sabzevar which had become one of the major centers of cotton cultivation since long ago, due to its gepgraphical position, was among the regions that drew the attention of the Russian merchants to purchase and export this valuable produce, so that the Russians to achieve their aim, they set up trading enterprises in this city. These trading enterprises, in addition to exporting large amounts of cotton to Russia, had a great role in encouraging this region’s farmers to cultivate quality cotton. The present paper, using the library method and with relying on archival documents and evidence of the foreign ministry and the archives of the national library of Iran, intends to study and analyze the acticivities of the Russian trading enterprises and ginneries in cotton exports to Russia. The findings of the research indicate that in the late years of the Qajar era Sabzevar had a major role in producing and exporting cotton to Russia; a matter which resulted in establishment of Russian trading enterprises and ginneries in this city.

Makatib Mokhtalefeh , as an epistolary work, is a compilation of diplomatic letters  of the Safavid Iran with the adjacent  poltical territories.  This collection, compiled by Mohammad Saleh, nephew of Iskandarbeig Monshi, was collected during the reign of  Shah Abbas II, includes 149 diplomatic letters, each of sheds light on the rules governing the Safavid Iran diplomatic ties at the regional level. The question here in this paper is That: what dimensions and angels of the governing rules on the Iranian regional diplomatic relations do the diplomatic letters are revealed through the classification of letters existent in the Makatib Mokhtalefeh? The findings of the research are based on the Descriptive-Analytical method, that reveal the classification of the letters in the Makatib Mokhtalefeh, which in the form of small and large political entities, show the identity of the senders and receivers of the letters as well as the diplomatic language current in the letters. Based on the triple models in the Makatib Mokhtalefeh, while becoming informed of exchange of various letters between the Safavids with the circle of the eastern and western neighbors, the amount of influence of the political and even religious forces in the Safavid Iran is shown. Besides, against the backdrop of exchange of these letters, the Persian Language has served as the linking piece between the Safavids and the neighbors.

Erzincan was one of the important cities during the Timurid period. and due to it being situated in the region among the northwest Iran, Armenia, and Anatolia, it played a major role in the political and military equations of the powerful governments of the Timurids, Ottomans, and the Turkmans. This city was always at the center of the regional big powers tug of war. However, its domestic affairs were ruled by the local puppet rulers. With the emergence and start of the conguests of Timur Gorkani, Tahrtan, the governer of Erzincan, declared subordination to Timur and tried to consolidate his position in the region. This paper seeks to answer the question, how and based on what policies, were the local rulers of Erzincan’s relations with the Timurids? To answer this question, we have used the Descriptive-Analytical method as well as the library sources. The findings show that the region of Erzincan played a determining role in the big powers’ relations during the 15th century. Timur, in addition to gaining support and unity of the local rulers of Erzincan for dominating this region and projecting his power to Anatolia and Armenia, used this region as a bulwark and fortress for protecting his main territories in Iran and Central Asia against his rivals. The Erzincan rulers, also, united with Timur to survive against the territorial policies of the Ottomans and the Turkmans, but this region came under the rule of the Turkmans and then the Ottomans after the defeat of the Timurids, and its local government disappeared.